Prepared by RUSA Access to Information Committee, July 2004
Barriers to access can be technical in nature. Obsolete formats can be inaccessible without special preservation efforts. Digital media require careful implementation to ensure continued access. New technologies can offer expanded access by offering multiple language and media compatibility, but they must be carefully designed to meet their potential.
Persons with disabilities may face physical barriers when using information technology that assumes certain visual and manual abilities to operate. Physical barriers or mobility restrictions can prevent access to library buildings. Thoughtful use of new and old technology can minimize these barriers.
Cultural barriers may prevent underrepresented groups from obtaining information or making their own views known. New technology has the potential to create new information communities,
but it may also strengthen cultural barriers.
Economic barriers arise when information is too costly to obtain. Libraries have traditionally subsidized access to textual and electronic materials, but budgetary constraints and technological change present new problems and opportunities in maintaining access. Informed policy can address information inequality arising from economic sources.
The organization of information is an essential element of information access. Print and electronic information needs to be organized so that it can be easily found and understood. Librarians are bringing their invaluable skills in information organization to the electronic world.
Access to scholarly and educational information is under pressure as the global production of information expands. Economic constraints and technological change are combining to restructure the universe of scholarly information. Scholarly communication can occur in a multitude of forums including, but not limited to, conferences, class discussions, and electronic & print publications.
Legal, ethical and philosophical concerns affect information access. Open access must be balanced against privacy rights and defended from censorship. Ethical and legal principles must be adapted to keep these forces in balance as technology alters information distribution.
Access to government information is a special area of concern. The principles of open access that gave rise to the Federal Depository Library program needs to be revised and reinforced in an age of Internet information distribution.
Finally, library policy must confront these potential barriers and offer guidance on how libraries can maximize access to information.
This bibliography lists selected recent publications that discuss these aspects of access to information.
Byers, Fred R. (2003). Care and Handling of CDs and DVDs: A Guide
for Librarians and Archivists. Washington, D.C.: Council on
Library and Information Resources and the National Institute of
Standards and Technology. Retrieved July 13, 2004, from
http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub121/pub121.pdf
The title says it all.
The author offers guidance on prolonging the lifespan of CDs and DVDs.
A handy table lists the optimal temperatures for each type of optical
disk.
Practical Experiences in Digital
Preservation, 2 - 4 April, 2003. Kew, UK: National
Archives and International Council on Archives.
Retrieved July 13, 2004, from
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/preservation/news/conference/default.htm
Conference speakers described the ongoing efforts in various
countries to preserve digital material as well as reasons for the need
to do so. The various types of storage format and digital files also
received much attention. Conference proceedings are available in both
audio and visual format.
Preserving Our Digital Heritage: Plan for
the National Digital Information Infrastructure and Preservation
Program. (2002). Retrieved July
13, 2004, from
http://www.digitalpreservation.gov/repor/ndiipp_plan.pdf and
http://www.digitalpreservation.gov/repor/ndiipp_appendix.pdf
In response to a Congressional mandate, the Library of Congress
issued this report about the long-term storage and preservation of
digital content. A series of meetings were conducted among
representatives of various industries which had compelling interest in
preserving digital data. The Library conducted background research on
the issues involved and defined the components of the digital
preservation infrastructure. Plans for action to be undertaken by the
Library are outlined in the report.
Hudson, Laura. (2002). A New Age of Accessibility. Library Journal
netConnect, 19-21.
The article explains federal standards
that library can use to make web sites accessible to users with
disabilities. Disabilities covered include vision, hearing, and
mobility disabilities, cognitive impairments and seizure disorders.
Hudson provides a list of Web sites with complementary information.
Mates, Barbara T. (2000). Adaptive Technology for the Internet:
making electronic resources accessible to all. Chicago: American
Library Association.
This book covers technologies for the visually, hearing and physically
impaired. Included are chapters from funding sources, staff training
and publicizing services.
McDermott, Irene E. (2001). Curb Cuts on the Information Superhighway:
Making the Web Accessible. Searcher, 9(3)
65-69.
The author provides an extensive list of Web sites that promote
accessible design, appropriate software, and standards for information
technology.
McNulty, Tom. (Ed). (1999). Accessible Libraries on Campus: A
Practical Guide for the Creation of Disability Friendly Libraries.
Chicago: American Library Association, Association of College and
Research
Libraries.
Essays cover issues such as disability
in higher education, services for patrons with hearing loss or
deafness, creating web pages accessible to visually impaired users, and
more. Appendices include profiles of noteworthy access programs and
projects for librarians who want to assess users' needs and
expectations, and a directory of resources.
Falling Through the Net: Defining the Digital Divide. (1999).
Retrieved June 16, 2004, from
http://www.ntia.doc.gov/ntiahome/fttn99/contents.html
This government study of internet usage in the United States includes
data on access by racial and economic categories. The study shows that,
“When holding income constant, Black and Hispanic households are still
far less likely to have Internet access.” Implications for librarians
are discussed, such as the greater likelihood (1.91 times more likely)
that Black Americans will use the internet at their public libraries
than White Americans.
Hoffman, D. L., Novak, T. P., & Schlosser, A. E. (2000). The Evolution
of the Digital Divide: How Gaps in Internet Access May Impact
Electronic Commerce. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 5(3).
Retrieved June 16, 2004, from
http://www.ascusc.org/jcmc/vol5/issue3/hoffman.html
This paper traces how race impacts usage of the internet over time, in
contrast to the authors’ previous study which looked at internet usage
at a single point in time, and also takes into consideration income and
education of computer users. The data shows that despite government
pushes to close the digital divide, “the overall gap between whites and
African Americans in Internet access and having ever used the Internet
have actually increased over time.”
Hull, B. (2001). Can librarians help to overcome the social barriers to
access? New Library World, 102(10), 382-388.
Hull reports on a study conducted in the UK on the use of libraries for
lifelong learning that showed greater library usage by students from
non-traditional backgrounds. The author recommends an increased
emphasis on cultural sensitivity and good interpersonal skills in the
training of future librarians.
Drew, T. C. (2002). Addressing the global digital divide and its impact
on educational opportunity. Educational Media International, 39(3/4),
211-222.
The author describes the digital divide as one aspect of the increasing
gap between the rich and the poor worldwide. Causes of digital divide
relate to culture, language, poverty, infrastructure, bureaucracy,
corruption and protectionism.
Stueart, R. D. (2000). The economic crisis and challenges in accessing
science and technological information in Asia. IFLA Journal, 26(2),
107-111.
The author reports that the greatest threat to access for libraries in
Asia is not the technology itself, but rather the cost, pricing,
policies and regulations involved. The greatest frustration for
professionals is in attempting to find full text of scientific and
technical information cited in bibliographic databases. The full texts
are outside the financial grasp of most Asian libraries.
Young, P. R. (1994). Changing information access economies: New roles
for libraries and librarians. Information Technology & Libraries, 13(2),
103-114.
The article focuses on the changes in the economic structure of library
and information services and their implications for library policies.
The shift from ‘fee’ or ‘free’ services to broader global policy
concerns is mentioned.
Allert, Jeann L. (2001). A 12-Step (or so) Program for Information
Junkies. Training & Development, 55(1), 32-36.
Allert proposes ways for end-users to deal with “information fatigue
syndrome” and offers all information specialists tools and suggestions
to organize and access information effectively.
Bertot, John Carlo, & McClure, Charles R. (2003). Outcomes Assessment
in the Networked Environment: Research Questions, Issues, and Moving
Forward. Library Trends, 51(4), 590-613.
The authors identify factors in the networked environment of
information that help librarians measure outcomes and assess the
methods they use to evaluate the success of their work.
Fast, Karl V., & Campbell, D. Grant. (2001). The Ontological
Perspectives of the Semantic Web and the Metadata Harvesting Protocol:
Applications of Metadata for Improving Web Search. Canadian Journal
of Information and Library Sciences, 26(4), 5-19.
This is a highly technical investigation of utilizing metadata to
maximize results in searching the web for desired information.
Thilmany, Jean. (2003). Too Much Information. Mechanical Engineering,
125(6), 44-46.
Although written for professional engineers, this article highlights
important areas of information organization that have particular
relevance for librarians seeking the most effective ways to organize
information in a user-friendly way.
Dilevko, J., & Grewal, K. (1997). A New Approach to Collection Bias in
Academic Libraries: The Extent of Corporate Control in Journal
Holdings. Library & Information Science Research, 19(4),
359-385.
The authors suggest an alternative method of measuring socio-political
bias in journal collections, in which the publisher is categorized as
either corporate or small. Using this method, the authors conclude that
Canadian academic libraries hold a much higher percentage of
mainstream, corporate-publisher journals than small-publisher journals.
Electronic access to full text journals provides even greater
differentiation in holdings by type of publisher. Since marginalized
populations are more likely to have journals devoted to their
viewpoints published by small publishers, the disparate subscription
rates of corporate and small publishers’ journals are of particular
significance in providing access to alternative points of view.
Mann, T. (2001). The Importance of Books, Free Access, and Libraries as
Places—and the Dangerous Inadequacy of the Information Science
Paradigm. Journal of Academic Librarianship, 27(4), 268-281.
Libraries should view access to copyrighted materials—mainly books and
licensed databases—as their primary mission. The book format presents
content as coherent whole entities, facilitating knowledge and
understanding levels of awareness rather than just the data and
information levels. Restrictions of place for books or person for
databases should be viewed as strengths of libraries because they allow
access to material that otherwise would not be available except at
significant cost.
Moran, G. (1992). Academic Librarians and Mediation in Controversial
Scholarly Communication. Reference Librarian, 17(37), 183-196.
Librarians can play a significant role in identifying, indexing,
cataloging and creating bibliographies of information on various
viewpoints of a scholarly controversy. Librarians’ role may be
particularly important when the academic peer review process attempts
to suppress information regarding research errors.
Floridi, Luciano. (2002) Informational Ethics: An Environmental
Approach to the Digital Divide. Philosophy in the Contemporary World,
9(1), 39-45. Retrieved April 26, 2004, from
http://www.wolfson.ox.ac.uk/~floridi/pdf/ieeadd.pdf
Floridi
discusses the idea of the digital divide as being an ethical question
of great importance to society. He argues that we need to fight “any
kind of destruction, corruption, pollution, depletion. . . or
unjustified closure of [information]. . . . The ethical use of
[information] and the sustainable development of an equitable
information society need a safe and public infosphere for all, where
communication and collaboration can flourish, coherently with the
application of civil rights, legal requirements and the fundamental
freedoms of the media.”
Hollaar, Lee A. (2002). Legal Protection of Digital Information.
Washington, D.C.: Bureau of National Affairs.
The book contains excerpts from relevant cases and makes
excellent use of legislative history materials. In fact, it is the use
of the legislative history reports that distinguish this book from
others in the field. As a person who was intimately involved with the
adoption of many of these laws, Hollaar has brought in excellent
resources such as the recommendations of the National Commission on New
Technological Uses of Copyrighted Works (CONTU) and the Information
Infrastructure Task Force’s white paper on copyright and the Internet.
The House and Senate reports accompanying the 1976 revision of the
copyright act contain a wealth of information that is not often tapped.
Peace, A., and Hartzel, K. (2002). Ethical Concerns Raised by the Use
of the Internet in Academia. Journal of Information Ethics, 11(2),
17-32.
This article discusses some of the issues that result from the use of
information technology in higher education. Among the issues mentioned
are intellectual property rights, privacy issues, freedom of speech and
censorship, accessibility of information technology, and accuracy. The
authors suggest that academic institutions must look at these issues
and create appropriate policies.
Reynolds, Tom K. (2002). Collateral Damage: Information, Intellectual
Freedom, and the War on Terrorism. Alki, 18(2),
28-30.
This article discusses some of the changes that have taken place in
libraries as a result of the attacks of September 11 and the war on
terrorism. The author writes about the passage of the USA PATRIOT Act
and related anti-terrorism measures, along with a description of the
hearings on the passage of the act.
Wengert, Robert G. (2002). Some Ethical Aspects of Being an Information
Professional. Library Trends, 50 (4), 486-509.
This article discusses some of the ethical issues that the Internet
has brought to the forefront. The author shows how these ethical
debates touch libraries, and talks about some of the consequences. The
article also talks about the ALA Code of Ethics, and about the rights
of individuals.
Pierce, Jennifer Burek. (2003). What Ails
Access to Government Health Information? American Libraries, 34(11),
58-63.
Information
on government health and science web sites have been removed or
altered, prompting concerns from numerous groups including library
associations and nonprofit organizations. The article lists specific
examples of displaced content. Reasons given for withdrawal or
alteration of online material include homeland security and
unsubstantiated data.
Shuler, John A. (2003). Citizen-centered
Government: Information Policy Possibilities for the 108th Congress.
Journal of Academic Librarianship
29(2),
107-110.
Shuler
suggests that the E-government Act of 2002 will change the traditional paradigm
of the federal depository library and argues that librarians need to work with
government agencies to maintain public access to government information.
Librarians should focus on ensuring that federal agencies are keeping archival
copies of electronically distributed material.
Smith, Ted D. (2002). Security versus Freedom of Information: An
Enduring Conflict in Federal Information Policy. OLA
Quarterly, 8(4),
2-6.
This article discusses the balance between the government’s roles as
disseminator of public information and protection of national security.
In the post-911 world, this balance has become especially delicate for
the Government Publications Office and the Federal Depository Library
Program. The author details the situation and makes recommendations.
West, Darrell M. (2000). Assessing E-Government: The Internet,
Democracy, and Service Delivery by State and Federal Governments.
Retrieved January 5, 2004, from http://www.insidepolitics.org/egovtreport00.html
Results of a study that surveyed state and federal information officers
and analyzed government web sites. Tables offer data such as the
percentages of government websites offering disability access, language
translation, privacy policy, and as well as the response rate to public
inquiries.
Access to Electronic Information, Services and Networks: An Interpretation of the Library Bill of Rights. Adopted by the ALA Council, January 24, 1996. Retrieved July 12, 2004, from http://www.ala.org/ala/oif/statementspols/statementsif/interpretations/accesstoelectronic.pdf
Carson, Bryan M. (2002). Surveying Privacy: Library Privacy Laws in the
Southeastern U.S. The Southeastern Librarian, 49(3-4), 19-28.
Retrieved June 16, 2004, from
http://sela.lib.ucf.edu/SoutheasternLibrarian/FallWinter2001.pdf
This article summarizes and
discusses library privacy laws in the states of Kentucky, West
Virginia, Virginia, Tennessee, the Carolinas, Georgia, Florida,
Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Louisiana, and the District of
Columbia. The author touches on Federal legislation that has had an
impact on privacy of library information, including FERPA (Family
Educational Rights and Privacy Act). Also mentioned is the impact of
the U.S.A. PATRIOT Act on library privacy from the viewpoint of
criminal law and search warrants. The author was a criminal defense
lawyer before becoming a librarian, and this was the first
peer-reviewed article to analyze the constitutional implications of the
PATRIOT Act in terms of the Search & Seizure provisions of the Fourth
Amendment.
Richey, Cynthia K. (2002). Molding Effective Internet Policies.
Computers in Libraries, 22(6), 16-21.
The author describes the process her library underwent in developing an
Internet policy that would address Internet access, community concerns,
and protect the library. She stresses the importance of training staff,
enforcing the policy, and educating parents.
Shuler, John A. (2002). Freedom of Public Information Versus the Right
to Public Information: The Future Possibilities of Library Advocacy.
Journal of Academic Librarianship, 28(3), 157-159.
The author
gives details and examples of some of the issues that libraries need to
be aware of in order to be good advocates for public information.